New Directions and Current Issues

Web 2.0 in Music Class?!

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What is Web 2.0?

The term Web 2.0 is used to describe web applications that have a capacity for harnessing collective intelligence. 

What?

It describes the use of common data by multiple applications and the rapid release of and never fully developed applications and lightweight programming - all of which produce rich user experiences. 

Wait... What?

It's more of a philosophy, less of a technology. Think about amazon.com's user reviews. Think of wikipedia. YouTube. Craigslist. yelp. Each one of these websites seeks to maximize the collective intelligence of the participants. 

Okay... but what does this have to do with education?

What makes Web 2.0 so special, and what differentiates it from Web 1.0, is that it utilizes individual and group contributions to create value.

They grow in value as they are used.

If you were the most organized and tech-savvy teacher ten years ago, think about how you might have kept up with  the teaching websites used during instruction. Probably with a long list of bookmarks with the sites organized into folders by units. What if a colleague asked you for some online resources on a specific topic, how would you share them? Go through the list and copy and paste them into an email, maybe? That's so Web 1.0! How would you keep up with these online teaching websites now? First of all, we refer to these websites as resources now. This is because Web 1.0 webpages were stagnant, typically not updated often and had one web host. Now, online resources have the Web 2.0 benefit of social networking, interactivity, collaborative learning, etc. Many teachers organize these online resources using tools like Google Drive ans Dropbox. These are great cloud storage tools that make sharing between devices and users easy. Other may use a tool like Pinterest, which allows you to share your resources to the world, tagging the link by description, making it searchable. These kinds of wikis make group collaboration possible by allowing the user to gain insight from others by annotations and evaluations. Tags allow for aggregation and produce multiple ways to value and sort information. 

I get what you're saying, but I'm not convinced...

Well, the 2008 British Educational Technology Communications Agency reported from the UK that using Web 2.0 tools in an educational setting:

• offers new opportunities for learners to take more control of their learning and access their own customized information, resources, tools, and services. 
• encourages a wider range of expressive capability 
• facilitates more collaborative ways of working, community creation, dialogue, and knowledge sharing
• furnishes a setting for learner achievements to attract an authentic audience

These statements directly relate to constructivist learning philosophies and pedagogies, such as:

• authentic task and audience
• multiple perspectives
• collaboration
• production of artifacts

But I teach ELEMENTARY MUSIC...

Me too! And I plan on using Web 2.0 tools to make music instruction more relevant in the lives of my older students. A school-based social networking site will help me provide interesting tidbits and post links to resources that might interest my students should they want to learn more about something we have learned in class. It will also provide an efficient way for me to receive feedback from the students. 

Some teachers have students record their listening reflections in music journals that are kept in the classroom. Imagine if you utilized a blogging platform where the students would not only record their reflections, but also be required to respectively comment on the reflections of their peers. 

I'm a big believer of video recording and sharing the recordings with my students regularly so they have a true sense of their progress. Imagine how motivating it would be if these videos were posted and comments for improvement were encouraged by the students. 

These are just a few examples of ways for students to take responsibility and own their own learning by sharing and collaborating. Which is so 2.0!

Rich Media in Education

What makes rich media so rich?

Rich media refers to instructional programs that incorporate high end media such as video, animation, and audio. It benefits the learners only to the extent that it supports the learning process.

Check this out:

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Pretty awesome for a commercial, right? Not so awesome for a textbook...

In order to know how to choose the correct media for instruction, we need to know that it supports the learning process. In order to know whether or not the media supports the learning process, we need to understand how learning works. 

Learning...

must accommodate limited working memory known as the cognitive load.

Prior knowledge is an important link for new information to move from working memory to long term memory storage. When this process takes place, it lightens the cognitive load.

happens by perceiving media through two different channels: visual and auditory.

Each of these channels has their own cognitive load limit.

happens when we convert content to new knowledge.

By selecting, organizing, and integrating new information into what we already know.

Things I will keep in mind when choosing rich media for instruction:

Visuals improve learning by offering the brain two opportunities to build meaning.

Visuals are better explained by audio narration than on screen text because they are processed by two separate channels. 

Learning is not effective if there is extraneous processing. 

Don't over do it. Keep it simple and make sure all media correlates to a specific learning goal. Simple line graphics are more effective than 3D images. Still frames are the same or more effective than animations. Animations are more effective than video, but are only effective when the information involves a physical procedure, the learner can control the pace of the presentation, and cuing such as arrows, coloring, etc. takes place.

Novices benefit most from visuals. 

This makes it a great way to aid ELL learners in constructing meaning. Keep in mind, though, that if an expert level of knowledge is already built, rich media actually decreases performance.

Games and Learning

http://rhetoricofgaming.wordpress.com/2011/11/02/edutainment-or-educational-gaming/

Musical skills are often taught through games in the music classroom, although these games are rarely digital. As a music teacher, it is important to remember that just because my students are playing a game, that does not mean they are "at play." To be "at play" the students must be wholly absorbed and feel free to take risks. Reading about learning through digital gaming provided some insight on how to make classroom music games for enriching. 

Below, I have listed characteristics of effective learning and how it relates to games. I have bolded areas I have found music games to be lacking.

Learning is at its best when it is active, goal-oriented, contextualized, and interesting.

Instructional environments should thus be interactive, provide ongoing feedback, grab and sustain attention, and have appropriate and adaptive levels of challenge.

An educational game must have:

• conflict/challenge
• particular goals/outcomes to achieve
• rules of engagement
• continuous feedback
• interaction within the environment
• compelling story line

Trends and Issues in Instructional Design Technology

Instructional Design differs greatly depending on the context. Looking at instructional design in business and industry, health care, and P-12 education, we can see similarities and differences. 

One of the main similarities I noticed in these three contexts was the delicate balance between cost and effectiveness. In the business and industry context, designers are typically hired to lead an instructional design project. The designer is at the mercy of the client and must balance his or her own theories and philosophies with those of the hiring party. This can be difficult when a designers name is attached to a product, but the designer is not allowed to do everything he or she feels is necessary to make the product most efficient. In health care education is a cost center, not a profit center, yet it is also of the utmost importance that those in the industry be current in the rapidly advancing knowledge base of the industry. Obviously, the cost technology integration in the education sector is high, not only when it comes to purchasing hardware and software for the school, but with the training that teachers need to receive and the research and evaluation of how effective technology is in the classroom. 

Rules and regulations play a role in each of the contexts, though not in the same way. In the private business sector, designers are held to the expectations of the hiring client. This regulates the designer, but leaves room for negotiation. In the health care system, there are numerous regulations, standards of care, and licensing procedures that must be followed. In education, we see the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 as a major influence on technology integration. NCLB sets benchmarks in place to ensure that each school in the country is involved in technology integration. There are, of course, state standards to meet as well. However, the regulation of technology integration seems vague. There are several goals, but how to reach those goals is not outlines. The expectations set by The Partnership for 21st Century Skills are wonderful, but without an outlined, research-supported plan on how to reach those goals, they begin to look lofty. By looking at the classroom-level technology integration models, it almost seems as though there is a lot of trial and error involved in technology integration.

The context in which the designer work is a major difference between the three industries. In the private business sector, designer must concern themselves with matching the culture of the business client. This includes working with subject matter experts and learning representatives to ensure that societal cultural and cross-cultural factors have been considered and respected. The health care system is so broad containing five different areas, yet most of the health education models center around the education of doctors. These models of problem-based and evidence-based learning must be considered when designing any health education instructional technology. In the classroom, there seems to be a gap between systems and product development and the development that happens at the classroom level. It seems that products and systems are created to be stand-alone products even though teachers rarely use curriculum that way. Teachers tend to pull from several sources what they believe will work with their students to accomplish their goals. 

As a teacher, I identify with several aspects of all three instructional design contexts. Lack of time and support is an obvious contextual constraint for teachers as well as private sector instructional designers. Perceived necessity can also be a problem when a teacher sees a need in the classroom, but is unable to convince the administration of this perceived necessity. Convergence in the health care field is a factor that faces health care systems, and it is an important factor in teaching as well. To fully integrate technology appropriately into our lessons, teachers strive to present information in a variety of formats and modalities to reach diverse learners and extend thinking.

I do not think that current education system is preparing learners foster the complex  problem-solving skills necessary to tackle the issues of living in an overpopulated world. I believe this is directly related to the lack of encouragement for creative thinking. In a formal learning environment, creative thinking has not always been praised. Children are constantly told to finish their work rather than applauding a student's interest in further research that was sparked by the work done in the classroom. Instead of praising children for drawing connections to the world around them, they are often told to stay on topic. It is a delicate balancing act that a teacher must perform to balance the creative thinking of the students with proper classroom management. This is where teacher-led instruction fails in the 21st century skills context. When students are involved in more project-based learning, each individual's project is unique, taking its own creative turns. This type of creative thinking and problem solving will aid the world later as it faces the problems of its environment. I think there are many countries that the US could learn from involving public education, but I think the influence should be on our educational system organization, rather than problems in instructional. Countries that value education, like Finland, have the strictest standards for teachers and compensate them accordingly. Finnish children are only required to attend school year round from age 7-16, but the schools focus on the quality of learning over the quantity allowing for the children to play outside for 90 minutes a day. Teachers use this time for curriculum planning and assessing their students' progress. Each school has equal resources and each student receives free meals and healthcare, giving each student as much of an equal chance as the school system can offer. 

Evaluating Programs and Human Performance

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Additional Models of Program Evaluation

Empowerment Evaluation Model

The Empowerment Evaluation Model is used to monitor and evaluate an organization's own performance. This model is used with the idea that the more people are engaged in their own evaluations, the more likely they are to believe in them. When an organization has ownership in its own evaluation, individuals are more like to make decisions and take actions based on the data from evaluation.

The Empowerment Model is based on 10 principles:

1. Community Ownership

2. Inclusion

3. Democratic Participation

4. Community Knowledge

5. Evidence-Based Strategies

6. Accountability

7. Improvement

8. Organizational Learning

9. Social Justice

10. Capacity Building

Implementation involves three simple steps:

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I plan on using Empowerment Evaluation with my older students whose interest seems to slowly decline when it comes to music instruction that is typically teacher-directed. My offering more constructivist learning  opportunities, empowerment evaluation can help increase student ownership in a subject that is performance based. By evaluating their own and their classmate's performances, they are also reaching TEKS dealing with music evaluation skills. 

Organizational Learning Model

Organization Learning consists of two levels of learning.

Single Loop Learning: modifying actions according to the difference between expected and obtained outcomes.

Double Loop Learning: questioning the values, assumptions, policies, that led to actions, then modifying them. 

Organizational Learning consists of Five Disciplines:

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The Organizational Learning Model may be helpful for me to attack instruction/learning problems that seem to recurr regardless of different actions taken. This model is useful when a step back needs to be taken so that the teacher can view the bigger picture and evaluate what is initially motivating actions. This could lead to  broader changes in instruction values or policies to positively affect learning.

Other Questions to Consider in Instructional Design Evaluation

Integrated technology into instructional design can be and expensive undertaking, making it important to gather as much data as possible to ensure that the right technology is being chosen for particular outcomes. Because the expense can be great and the monetary resources slim, it is important to also consider the return on investment when selecting different technologies. Management of resources is another question to consider because technology is not a one time expense. There may be extensive upkeep involved, software to purchase, and training to provide. 

Solving Performance Problems with Non-Instructional Approaches

Non-instructional approaches could solve a wealth of educational problems that eventually lead to performance problems, especially when technology is involved. For instance, many teachers receive plenty of training in different technologies to enhance their lessons, yet many teachers are still hesitant to take full advantage of these technologies. This is typically due to the teacher's lack of confidence if something were to go wrong, or the teacher's struggle to individualize the training he or she has received.

When I was student teaching at the elementary level, we used the Promethean board for most of our recorder lessons. One day it stopped working and we had no idea what was wrong. My mentor teacher guessed that the machine needed to be cleaned.or the bulb needed to be replaced so she put in a work order. Unfortunately, we had no way of knowing when someone would arrive to fix the board. We were without for days and had to supplement our lessons on the fly. Luckily, she had guessed right and after a few days of waiting someone came to fix the machine. If this had not been the problem, it would have been a lot of waiting for no reason as well as wasted labor. If there had been some kind of performance support, possible online tutorials where you can search for problems, and if this support was easy to access and navigate, we would have been able to know for sure what was wrong. If there had been a point person to contact that managed work requests and this person was linked with the repair peoples' schedules, we would have known exactly how long we would be without and been able to plan accordingly. Performance support would have been beneficial to this problem because of the frequency we used the Promethean board and how critical it was to our recorder lessons.

Knowledge management is another way to increase teacher confidence and aid in integrating technology into specific lessons using Web 2.0 technology. It is important that teachers communicate openly about their struggles and successes. Each teacher has different strengths and weaknesses and it would benefit every teacher to learn from each other. As a new teacher, I wish my district had one place where teachers could post relevant flipcharts, lesson plans, classroom management tools, etc. that have been successful for them so that I can learn from their experience. This knowledge base would need to be organized and tagged appropriately so that I could quickly search and find the information I needed, instead of scrolling through tons of unorganized and uncategorized information. There are many places to find this sort of information, but I have found them to be poorly managed making it unlikely to be utilized effectively.

I begin my first year of teaching elementary music next year. In my observations and student teaching experiences I have noticed a lack of engagement with 6th graders. I plan to combat this lack of interest with many informal learning opportunities including the formation of performance groups and introducing music technology. I am hoping that this constructivist format will increase student interest and ownership in their own learning. 

Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

1. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

This week's reflection questions were challenging and it took time for me to sit with all of the information and let it sink in. Epistemology is the study of learning. It is discovering how we come to know what we know. It is a more philosophical look at learning, whereas learning theories, models, methods, and models are the more scientific approach. The learning theorists utilize what we have come to understand through the study of epistemology, and apply the philosophies scientifically to come up with theories, models and methods as a means of effectively creating these learning experiences. If the definition of metacognition is 'thinking about thinking;' then the definition of epistemology could be 'thinking about learning.' Epistemology seems to extend much further than the field of education, while Learning theories focus more on scholastic problems and solutions.

I felt that this week's reading laid out the learning theories in the most clear and connected me. I felt that for the first time I could see exactly how the theories have come to be over time, and exactly how they relate to each other. It make sense that it would all begin with the most easily observed learning theory of Behaviorism, where all learning can be entirely understood by observable behavior. This is the most primal of learning theories, as it could be related to the natural learning that takes place by observing consequences of our behavior. Touching a hot stove always comes to mind when discussing Behaviorism, because it gives a clear and immediate consequence one quickly and easily learns from. 

From Behaviorism comes Cognitive Information Processing Theory which also credits a learner's environment as the most important role in learning, but recognizes internal processes within the learner that explain learning including memory systems, attention level, encoding, and retrieval. This increases emphasis on prior knowledge and observes that feedback but be corrective so that the learner can modify performance effectively. The Schema Theory and Cognitive Load further develops memory storage with the discovery that knowledge is categorized when it is stored in memory which makes prior knowledge even more important and leads us to the model of teaching where tasks are broken down into manageable, increasingly complex pieces that scaffold the learning process.

In Situated Learning Theory context begins to take center stage stating that learning occurs as the learner participates in the community. Peer teaching falls into this category with the Community of Learners Approach. Gagne's Theory of Instruction is primarily concerned with instruction and how what we know about learning can be applied to instruction design. He organized instruction into nine steps.

Constructivism takes us into an entirely different direction. Instead of the environment defining the learner, the learner is know assigning meaning to the environment while constructing knowledge. Learners construct knowledge independently, but rely on others to test their own understandings. This is the most modern of learning theories and is popular because it focuses on high level, complex learning goal. However, it is the most difficult learning environment for teachers to create and maintain. 

2.  Reflect on whether your stance is primarily positivist, relativist, or contextualist. Then, identify an instance when your perspective or stance as a learner conflicted with that of your instructor. Describe the conflict that you experienced and analyze whether opposing epistemic stances may have been at the heart of the conflict.

Upon reflection, I had a hard time deciding between relativist or contexualist, as I believe I am both in one way or another. Though I think I may learn more toward relativism, especially in my personal life. I believe that everyone has their own personal truth because everyone is on their own path with a history of their own experiences and their perceptions of those experiences. Every individual's perception makes up their own reality. In teaching, however, I do recognize the importance of context and try to keep that in mind when I am teaching my students to master particular concepts that I would like for them to be able to employ in a variety of contexts.

The only example of a conflict I experienced with a teacher, was in algebra. The teacher wanted me to just accept the formulas as formulas and use them to solve the equations. I struggled with this. I had just taken geometry which was much more hands-on. I could see how it related to our natural world, but I wanted to know how the algebraic equations came to be. What did a mathematical theorist need to know about our world when he or she decided to explore algebraic hypotheses. Even with word problems, I had a hard time making algebra make sense for me in my world, which made me resistant to the learning process, I think. Clearly, my teacher wanted me to accept the algebraic equations as a positivist when I needed to understand it relative to my own perception in order for effective learning to take place.

3. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Behaviorism Problem Solving:

• Behaviorism relies on trial and error.
• Students learn to perform new behaviors through the consequences of the things they do. 
• Reinforcement strengthens a particular behavior by receiving something desired (positive reinforcement) or avoiding something undesirable (negative reinforcement). 
• Punishment decreasing the likelihood of a repeated undesirable behavior. 

Constructivist Porblem Solving

• Shifts focus from teaching to learning and knowledge construction.
• Relevant tasks engage learners in meaningful processes that help solve a problem. 
• Allows students to extend learning beyond the content and apply the knowledge in other contexts. 

Defining the Field

Defining and Naming Our Field

I found that the history of how Instructional Technology came to be a field in its own right to have a logical progression. The definition changed right along with technological, as well as educational, advancements. As a teacher and a student, I found the AECT's most recent definition to most closely resemble my own. I agree with Reiser that the words 'facilitate learning' and 'improving performance' are very important. The modern day students needs to learn in a way they are comfortable with and that most resembles their own lives in order for the learning to be relevant and, thus, effective. 'Management' is also a term I believe will resonate with teachers. Many times teachers try to add so many technological resources they become burdened and struggle with managing resources properly. This can lead to the technology hindering the learning process instead of facilitating it. The author's definition focusing a little more on the data involved in instructional design. Research practice and the analysis of data is such an important aspect of instructional design, and I will now be adding this aspect to my personal definition. 

Characteristics of Instructional Design Models

In my student teaching in the Spring, I taught a beginner band classes. These classes consist of students on the same instrument learning the basics of their specific instruments and the foundations of playing that instrument together before the instruments join together the next year to perform as a band. During the beginning of the Spring semester, much focus is place on the learning of scales. Working with the saxophone class on their scales, I was able to adhere to most of the instructional design characteristics. The lessons were student-centered, goal-oriented, and focused on meaningful performance. The learning process was a team effort, up until it was time for assessment. It was the assessment portion of the instructional design that did not adhere to the six characteristics. Although, I did measure the outcome in a reliable and valid way, I failed to clearly and thoroughly communicate the criteria of measurement, therefore failing to made it reliable and valid in the eyes of the student. The data involved with how the 21st Century student learns tells us that today's student need to be fully aware of criteria of evaluation in order to learn best, and that this information should be clear and visible to them. When I received feedback from the students at the conclusion of my student teaching, I was thrilled to find out that the students appreciated and enjoyed the manner in which I taught scales. I was disappointed to realize what a negative impact the scale assessments had on the learning process. Knowing this, I wish I would have utilized a program like SmartMusic. It records the students so that they can hear their sound, which is a great way for them to become critical listeners and involved in their own learning. The program allows for them to record their playing, until they are happy with the result. In addition to becoming critical listeners and more involved in their own learning, I am convinced that this would have increased practice time as well!

A History of Instructional Design and Technology

In his chapter on the history of instructional design in technology, Reiser states that, historically speaking, most of the practices related to instructional media  have occurred independent of developments associated with instructional design. Therefore, he presents the two histories separately. Having started school in 1987, I am a part of a generation who grew up without a PC, internet, or cell phone.I remember media being introduced to me in an educational manner in the fourth grade, watching films for science class. In sixth grade, we visited a computer lab weekly where we learned to type and played Oregon Trail. It has only been recently where I feel instructional design and instructional media have become synonymous, and I believe that can be attributed to the fact that learning is all about communication and facilitation. In our lives outside the classroom, we equate communication and facilitation with technology, and we should in the classroom. This does not mean, however, that the purpose of instructional design is to incorporate media into instruction. The purpose of instructional design is to find the best ways to facilitate learning. It just so happens that in our world today, this means we need to incorporate technology to be effective, relevant, and competitive.